ON BUILDINGS AND FIELDS. I. ON CITIES. Concerning the founders of the cities that were established, disagreement is for the most part found, so much so that not even the origin of the city of Rome itself can be accurately known. For Sallust says (Catiline 6): 'The city of Rome, as I have received it, was founded and inhabited in the beginning by the Trojans and, together with them, by the Aborigines.' Others say it was founded by Evander, according to which Virgil writes (Aeneid 8:313): Then king Evander, founder of the Roman citadel. Others say by Romulus, as (Virgil, Aeneid 6:781): Behold, my son, under his auspices that renowned Rome. If, therefore, no certain account appears for so great a city, it is no wonder if there is doubt in the opinion held about others. Whence we ought not ignorantly to condemn either historians or commentators for saying various things, because antiquity itself created the error.
Certainly, concerning some cities whose sure origin either the holy Scriptures or the histories of the nations report, it is fitting to recount them in very few words. Before the Flood, Cain first founded the city of Enoch in Naid, named after his son, and he filled that city with the sheer multitude of his own posterity. After the Flood, the giant Nembroth (Nimrod) first founded the city of Babylon in Mesopotamia. Semiramis, queen of the Assyrians, enlarged it, and built the wall of the city with bitumen and baked brick. It took its name from confusion, because there the tongues of those building the tower were confounded and mingled.
The Jews assert that Shem, son of Noah, whom they call Melchizedek, first after the Flood founded in Syria the city of Salem, in which was the kingdom of that same Melchizedek. Afterwards the Jebusites held it, from whom it also drew the name Jebus; and thus, with the two names joined, Jebus and Salem, it was called Jerusalem, which afterwards was called by Solomon Hierosolyma, as if Hierosolomonia. This too was corruptly named Solyma by the poets, and later was called Aelia by Aelius Hadrianus. This same is also Sion, which in Hebrew is interpreted 'watch-tower' (or 'looking out'), because it was built on a height and looks out upon things coming from afar. But Jerusalem is rendered 'peaceful' in our speech.
Dionysus, who is also Father Liber, when as victor he had traversed India, founded the city of Nysa after his own name beside the river Indus, and filled it with fifty thousand men. But Medus, son of Aegeus, built Media; whence also his region obtained the name Media. Perseus, son of Adeas, founded Persepolis, the capital city of the Persian kingdom, most famous and most crowded with wealth; from whom Persia too was named. The Parthians also founded Ctesiphon in Parthia in rivalry with the city of Babylon. They say that the brother of Memnon established Susa, a town of Persia. And it was called Susa because it overlooks the river Susa.
There is the royal palace of Cyrus, adorned with white and variegated stone, with golden columns and coffered ceilings and gems, containing also an image of the heavens marked out with glittering stars, and other things incredible to human minds. The Bactrians founded the town of Bactrum, naming it after their own river, which is called Bactros. Carra (Carrhae), a city of Mesopotamia beyond Edessa, was founded by the Parthians, where once a Roman army was cut down and the general Crassus was captured. Nembroth (Nimrod), son of Chus (Cush), founded the city of Edessa in Mesopotamia after he had migrated from Babylon, and reigned in it; it was formerly named Arach. He also built Chalanne, which afterwards, with its name changed, was called Seleucia by King Seleucus.
Raphaim (the Rephaim), a most ancient people whom the sons of Lot destroyed, founded the city of Philadelphia in Arabia. Seleucus, one of the successors of Alexander, after the death of that same Alexander, when he had seized the kingdom of the East, founded a city in Syria, and named it Antioch after the name of his father Antiochus, and made it the capital of Syria. He also built Laodicea and Seleucia, he also Apamea and the city of Edessa. Damascus of Syria was founded and named after Damascus, the son of Abraham's steward. This city formerly held the primacy in all Syria; for Antioch, Laodicea, and Apamea were not yet flourishing there, which cities we know were built after Alexander.
This is the Damascus (Eliezer) whom Abraham had said would be his heir, before Isaac was promised to him. The Hivites founded the town of Gaza in Palestine, in which the Cappadocians dwelt after the former inhabitants had been slain. And it was called Gaza because there Cambyses, king of the Persians, deposited his treasures when he had made war upon the Egyptians; for in the Persian tongue a treasure is called 'gaza.' The Allophyli (foreigners, i.e. Philistines) founded the city of Philistim; this is Ascalon, of which we made mention above, named after Cesloim (Casluhim), who was the grandson of Ham and the son of Mesraim (Mizraim). Dor was once a most powerful city; and in turn it was the Tower of Strato, afterwards named Caesarea by Herod, king of Judaea, in honour of Caesar Augustus.
In this city the Church of Christ has seen the house of Cornelius, and the little dwellings of Philip, and the chamber of the four prophetesses, the virgins. The same Palestinians built Joppa, a maritime town of Palestine; where a rock is shown that still retains the marks of the chains of Andromeda; the form of that sea-monster was larger than elephants. Jericho is reported to have been founded by the Jebusites, from whom it is said also to have taken its name. Joshua (Jesus son of Nave) overthrew this. After it, he built another, Oza of Bethel, from the tribe of Ephraim. But this too, at the time when Jerusalem was being besieged by the Romans, was captured and destroyed on account of the treachery of its citizens; and on account of this a third city was built, which remains even today.
Emor (Hamor) built Shechem, a city of Samaria, which in Latin and Greek is called Sichima, and he named it by the name of his son Shechem. This is now Neapolis, the city of the Samaritans. The Jebusites founded Bethel, a city of Samaria, which was formerly called Luza; but after Jacob, sleeping there, saw a ladder resting upon heaven and said (Gen. 28:17), 'Truly this is the house of God and the gate of heaven,' for this reason the place received the name Bethel, that is, house of God. But when the golden calves were fashioned there by Jeroboam, it was called Bethaven, that is, house of the idol, which was formerly called house of God. Bethlehem of Judah, the city of David, which brought forth the Saviour of the world, is said to have been founded by the Jebusites and first named Ephrata.
But when Jacob pastured his flocks there, he imposed on that same place the name Bethlehem by a certain prophecy of the future, which is interpreted 'house of bread,' on account of that bread which there came down from heaven. Hebron, a city of Judaea, which was once called Arbe, was founded by the giants seven years before the city of Tanis in Egypt was founded by them. This same is Arbe, so called from the number, because there three patriarchs are buried and Adam as a fourth. This same is also called Mambre, after one friend of Abraham. Samaria, from which the whole region that was around it received its name, was built by Sennacherib, king of the Assyrians, and he called it Samaria, that is, 'guard-post,' because, when he transferred Israel into Media, he set guards there.
Antiochus, having captured it by siege, levelled it with the ground. Herod afterwards, restoring it from its foundations, called it Augusta in honour of Augustus, that is, Sebastia in the Greek tongue. There are buried the prophets Elisha and Obadiah, and John the Baptist, than whom among those born of women none was greater. But another Herod founded Tiberias in Judaea in the name of Tiberius Caesar. Tyre, a city of the Phoenicians, was founded by the Phoenicians. This is the city from which gold was brought to King Solomon; in which the finest purple is dyed: whence the noble purple is also called Tyrian. The Phoenicians, having set out from the Red Sea, founded the most opulent city of Sidon, which they called Sidon from the abundance of fish. For the Phoenicians call a fish 'sidon.'
They themselves also founded Tyre in Syria, they Utica in Africa, Hippo, Leptis, and other cities on the sea coast. They founded Thebes in Boeotia under the leadership of Cadmus; they at last, extending to the farthest parts of the world, built a city on the Ocean, and named it in their own tongue Gades. For it was the ancient custom of the Phoenician people to set out from home in great numbers together for the sake of trading, and, when they had won over the hearts of the inhabitants by the commerce of things previously unknown to them, to seize places that seemed suitable for founding cities. From these Dido also set out and founded a city on the shore of Africa, and named it Carthada, which in the Phoenician tongue expresses 'new city'; presently, with the word changed, it was called Carthage: this Scipio destroyed.
But the one that now exists was afterwards founded by the Romans. Now Carthage was formerly called Byrsa, then Tyrus, and afterwards Carthage. Epaphus, son of Jupiter, built Memphis, a city of Egypt, when he was reigning in the second Egypt. This is the city where papyrus grows, where also the best mathematicians (astronomers) were. For the traces of ancient error, right up to the present time, show this city to have been given over to magical arts. Tanis, the metropolis of Egypt, where Pharaoh was, and Moses performed all the signs which are written in Exodus. The Titans, that is, the giants, are reported to have built this city, and named it after their own name. Heliopolis, a city of Egypt, which is interpreted in Latin 'city of the sun,' as the seventy translators (the Septuagint) judge.
It was built by the sons of Israel, in which Potiphar was a priest, whom Ezekiel mentions. Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria, which also retains his name. For he established it on the borders of Africa and Egypt, and ordered it to be the capital of the region of Egypt. It lies between Egypt and the sea, like a barrier, without a harbour. This is the Egyptian city Noo (No), afterwards changed into Alexandria. Cadmus founded Egyptian Thebes, which among the Egyptian cities is held more noble for its number of gates, to which the Arabs bring merchandise from every side. Hence the Egyptian region was called Thebaica. But there are Thebes both of Boeotia and of Egypt, yet founded by one and the same author.
Ptolemais and Berenice were named by the Egyptian kings, by whom they were also built. Perseus, offspring of Danae, built Caesarea of Cappadocia and Tarsus of Cilicia. From this city was the Apostle Paul (Acts 22:3): 'Born,' he says, 'in Tarsus of Cilicia.' There is also a certain place in India called Tarsus. Seleucus, who founded Antioch too, founded Seleucia of Isauria. But Ilus, son of Apollo, founded Ilium in Phrygia. The Amazons built Ephesus in Asia. But Theseus built Smyrna, which was the fatherland of the poet Homer; and it was called Smyrna because the river Hermus cuts through its plains. Amphitus and Cercius, the charioteers of Castor and Pollux, built Dioscorias, a city of the Colchians, naming it after their own name;
for Castor and Pollux are called in Greek Dioskouroi. Nicomedia was built by Nicomedes, king of Bithynia. Bithynia was founded by Phoenix, and was at first called Mariandyna. Constantine established the city of Constantinople in Thrace after his own name, the only city made equal to Rome in merits and power. It was first founded by Pausanias, king of the Spartans, and called Byzantium, either because it lies open so widely between the Adriatic Sea and the Propontis, or because it is a receptacle for the resources of land and sea. Whence Constantine judged it most fit to found, so that it might become a receptacle for himself by land and sea. Whence now it is the seat of the Roman empire and the capital of the whole East, just as Rome is of the West.
Epirus, a city of Thrace, was founded by Pyrrhus and named after him. Cecrops founded Athens in Hellas, and named it Cecropia after his own name. Amphictyon, the same who reigned third in Greece after Cecrops, dedicated it to Minerva and gave the city the name Athens; for Minerva is called Athene in Greek. Whence the Greeks also assert that Minerva is the inventress of many arts, because both letters and the arts of diverse studies and philosophy itself had Athens as, so to speak, their temple. Corinthus, son of Orestes, founded Corinth in Achaia. The Greeks call it Corinthea, that is, the administration of the commonwealth. Cadmus, coming from the Phoenicians, founded Thebes of Boeotia, Egyptian Thebes having first been built by him.
Mycenae, a city of Greece. Lacedaemon was founded by Lacedaemon, son of Semele. Sparta was named after Spartus, son of Phoroneus, who was the son of Inachus. And this same Sparta is that city which is also called Lacedaemonia, and hence the Lacedaemonians are called Spartans. Achaia was built by Achaeus: Pelops, who reigned at Argos, founded the city of Peloponnesus: Cecrops built Rhodus on the island of Rhodes: Carpathus built Cos: Aeos, son of Typhon, built Paphos: Angeus, son of Lycurgus, built Samos: but Dardanus founded Dardania: Thessalus, son of the Greek, built Thessalonica, in which he also reigned. The Greeks built Brundisium: and Brundisium was so called in Greek because 'brunda' means a stag's head:
for it is so, in that both the horns and the head and the tongue seem to appear in the layout of that very city. But in Italy, Janiculum was founded from Janus, and Saturnia and Latium from Saturn, the latter so named because he had hidden there in flight (latuisset). By Hercules, Pompeia in Campania was founded, who as victor had led a procession (pompa) of oxen from Spain. But Aeneas, coming into that same Italy after the destruction of Troy, founded Lavinium from the name of his wife. And Ascanius, having left the kingdom of Lavinia his stepmother, built Alba Longa. It was called Alba because of the colour of a sow; Longa, because it is a long town, following the length of the hill on which it is situated. From this city too the kings of the Albans began to be called.
Capys Silvius, king of the Albans, built Capua, named after the name of its founder; although there are those who say it was called Capua from its capacity (capacitas), because its land takes in (capiat) every fruit of life: others from the level places (campi) in which it is situated. It is the capital of the cities of Campania, reckoned among the three greatest, Rome and Carthage; from which too the province of Italy was called Campania. Romulus, when, after Amulius had been slain at Alba, he had restored his grandfather Numitor to the kingdom, came to the place where Rome now is, and there set his seat, built walls, and called the city Rome after his own name. But this city is said to have been founded earlier by Evander, as is that verse (Virgil, Aeneid 8:313): Then father Evander, founder of the Roman citadel.
Ancus Marcius, born of the daughter of Numa Pompilius: he founded a city at the mouth of the Tiber which might both receive foreign wares and delay the enemy, which he called Ostia from its very location. Certain Gauls, stirred by internal discord and constant dissensions of their own people, seeking new dwellings, set out for Italy, and having expelled the Tuscans from their own dwellings, founded Milan and other cities. And it was called Mediolanum (Milan) from the fact that a sow woolly in the middle (medio lanea) is reported to have been found there. It pleases the historians that Messapia derived its origin from the Greek Messapus, afterwards changed into the name Calabria, which at the outset the brother of Oenotrus, Peucetius, had named Peucetia.
Manto, daughter of Tiresias, after the destruction of the Thebans, is said to have been carried into Italy and to have founded Mantua: it is in Venetia, which is called Cisalpine Gaul: and it was called Mantua because it watches over the shades of the dead (manes tuetur). Parthenopea was called Parthenope from a certain virgin Parthenope buried there; which town Augustus afterwards preferred to be Neapolis. At the promontory of Leucate, on which there was a temple of Actian Apollo, Augustus waged war against Antony. When he had conquered him, he founded a city in the Actian bay, which he called Nicopolis from his victory. Phalantus, leader of the Parthenii, established the Parthenii. Taras was a son of Neptune, from whom the city Tarentum was both founded and named.
When Cyrus was occupying the maritime cities of Greece, and the Phocaeans, defeated by him, were being pressed by every hardship, they swore that they would flee as far as possible from the empire of the Persians, where they would not even hear their name; and so, having set out by ship into the farthest bays of Gaul, and defending themselves with arms against Gallic fierceness, they founded Massilia and named it after the name of their leader. Varro says these people are trilingual, because they speak both Greek and Latin and Gallic. Their own colonists founded Narbonne and Arles and Poitiers. They say Burdigala (Bordeaux) was so called because it first had the Burgi as Gallic colonists, by which cultivators it was previously filled. The Scipios built Tarraco in Spain;
therefore it is the capital of the province of Tarraconensis. Caesaraugusta (Zaragoza), a town of Tarraconensian Spain, was both sited and named by Caesar Augustus, more excellent than all the cities of Spain for the pleasantness and delights of its location, and more illustrious, flourishing with the burials of holy martyrs. The Africans under Hannibal, occupying the maritime regions of Spain, built Carthago Spartaria (New Carthage), which, soon captured by the Romans and made a colony, also gave its name to the province. But now it has been overthrown by the Goths and reduced to desolation. The Greeks, having set out from the island of Zacynthus, founded Saguntum in Spain; which the Africans afterwards, having assailed it in war, destroyed.
凱撒·奧古斯都在攻取了盧西塔尼亞及大洋中的某些島嶼之後，建造了梅里達，並因他在那裡安置了退伍老兵而給它取名。因為退役、從軍役中解除的老兵稱為 emeriti。里斯本是由奧德修斯所建並命名的；史家們說，在那地方天與地相分，海與陸相隔。尤利烏斯·凱撒建立了塞維利亞，他以自己的名字與羅馬城之名稱它為 Julia Romula。塞維利亞（Hispalis）得名於它的地勢，因為它建於沼澤地上、立於深處所打的木樁之上，免得它在滑動不穩的根基上塌陷。加的斯城由迦太基人所建，他們也建立了新迦太基。
Caesar Augustus built Emerita (Merida) after he had taken Lusitania and certain islands of the Ocean, giving it a name from the fact that he had settled veteran soldiers there. For veterans, discharged from military service, are called emeriti. Olisipo (Lisbon) was founded and named by Ulysses; in which place, as the historians say, the sky is distinguished from the earth and the seas from the lands. Julius Caesar founded Hispalis (Seville), which he named Julia Romula from his own name and that of the city of Rome. And Hispalis was named from its site, because it was placed on marshy ground upon piles fixed deep down, lest it should give way on a slippery and unstable foundation. The town of Gades (Cadiz) was founded by the Carthaginians, who also founded Carthago Spartaria.
Septe (Ceuta) is a town named from seven mountains, which from their resemblance are called the Brothers and overhang the strait of Gades. Antaeus is the founder of the city of Tingis (Tangier) and of Lix, whom Hercules is said to have slain, having overcome him in a wrestling contest. And Lix was named from the river Lixus of Mauretania, where the palace of Antaeus was, and Sala, because it overhangs the river Sala. Juba, king of the Moors, founded Caesarea, a town of Mauretania, in honour of Caesar Augustus, which he named Caesarea after his name; just as Herod founded another Caesarea in Palestine, which is now a most renowned city. Icosium, a town of Caesariensian Mauretania, was built by twenty men separating from the company of Hercules as he was passing there.
Lest anyone should privately boast of a name imposed by himself, the name was given to the city Icosium from the number of its founders. Cyrene was a queen of Libya who founded the city Cyrene after her own name, from which she also called it Cyrenensian Libya. II. ON PUBLIC BUILDINGS. A city (civitas) is a multitude of men united by a bond of society, called from the citizens (cives), that is, from the very inhabitants of the town, because it takes in and holds together the lives (vitae) of many. For the town (urbs) itself is the walls, but a city (civitas) means not the stones but the inhabitants. There are three societies: of families, of towns, of peoples. A town (urbs) is called from a circle (orbis), because ancient cities were made in a circle; or from urbum, a part of the plough, by which the walls were marked out; whence is that verse (Virgil, Aeneid 3:109; 1:425):
'And he chose a place for the kingdom and to enclose it with a furrow.' For the site of a future city was marked out by a furrow, that is, by a plough. Cato says (Origins 1:18): 'He who founds a new city ploughs with a bull and a cow; where he has ploughed, he makes the wall; where he wishes a gate to be, he lifts up the plough and carries it, and calls it a gate (porta).' And for this reason a city was surrounded by a plough, with yokes of oxen of unlike sex, on account of the mingling of families, and as an image of one who sows and renders fruit. A city (urbs) is founded with a plough, and is overturned with a plough. Whence Horace (Odes 1:16:20): 'And should drive the hostile plough over the walls.' Some have said 'town' (oppidum) is from the opposition (oppositio) of walls; others from the storing up of resources (opes), because it is fortified; others because in it the assembly of inhabitants gives itself mutual aid (opem) against the enemy.
For at first men, being as it were naked and unarmed, had neither defences against wild beasts, nor refuges from cold and heat, nor were men themselves sufficiently safe among themselves from other men. At length, by natural ingenuity, in caves and woodland coverings, they wove together huts and cottages for themselves out of shrubs and reeds, so that life might be safer, lest there be an approach for those who could do harm. This is the origin of towns (oppida), which, because they gave aid (opem), were for that reason called towns (oppida). But a town (oppidum) differs from a village (vicus), a fort (castellum), and a district (pagus) in magnitude and walls. Now settlements are called either cities, or colonies, or municipia, or villages, or forts, or districts. A city (civitas) is properly so called which not newcomers, but men born in the same soil, have founded.
And therefore towns founded by their own citizens are called cities (civitates), not colonies. But a colony is one that, from a lack of native inhabitants, is filled up with new cultivators. Whence too a colony is named from the cultivation (cultus) of the field. A municipium is one which, while the status of the city remains, obtains from the emperor some right of a lesser or greater office. And a municipium is named from munia, that is, duties, because they render only munia, that is, tributes owed or gifts. For liberal and most celebrated cases, and those that proceed from the emperor, are not conducted there. For these pertain to the dignity of cities.
Villages (vici), forts (castella), and districts (pagi) are those which are adorned with no dignity of a city, but are inhabited by a common assembly of men, and on account of their smallness are assigned to greater cities. A village (vicus) is named only from the dwellings themselves, or because it has only streets (viae) without walls. For it is without the fortification of walls; although the dwellings of a city too are called vici. And a village is called vicus because it is in place of (vice) a city, or because it has only streets without walls. The ancients used to call a fortress (castrum) a town situated in a very high place, as it were a high dwelling (casa alta); the plural of this is castra, and the diminutive is castellum, either that, or because the license of those dwelling therein was restrained (castrabatur), lest, wandering everywhere, it should lie open to the enemy.
Districts (pagi) are places suited for buildings among the fields for those dwelling there. These are also called conciliabula, from the gathering and society of many into one. Compita are where it was customary for assemblies of country folk to be held; and they are called compita because many places in the fields meet (competant) at the same point; and where country folk come together. Suburbs (suburbana) are the buildings lying around a city, as it were under the city (sub urbe). Ramparts (moenia) are the walls of a city, so called because they fortify (muniant) the city, as it were the fortifications (munimenta) of the town, that is, its safeguards. And munium is named as it were 'made by hand' (manu factum): so too munus. Walls (muri) are named from fortification (munitio), as it were to be fortified (muniri), because they fortify and protect the interior of the town. But moenia have a twofold meaning; for sometimes moenia are loosely used for all the public buildings of a city, as (Virgil,
Aeneid 2:234): 'We breach the walls, and lay open the ramparts (moenia) of the city'; but properly moenia are only the walls. Now a wall is adorned with towers and battlements. Towers (turres) are so called because they are rounded (teretes) and long; for teres is something round together with height, like a column. For even though they are built square or broad, yet to those seeing them from a distance they are reckoned round; and this is because every image of any angle vanishes and is consumed through the long expanse of air, and appears round. Battlements (propugnacula) are the merlons of walls, so called because from them one fights out (propugnatur). A promurale (outer wall) is so called because it is in place of the fortification of the wall (pro munitione muri). For it is a wall nearest before the wall. A gate (porta) is so called because through it something can be either carried in (importari) or carried out (exportari).
如上所述，城門本義乃是指城邦的或營寨的門。如前所言，vicus 乃是城邦中居所本身；『鄰人』（vicini）也由此得名。街道（viae）是介於各 vicus 之間極其狹窄的空間。大街（plateae）乃是城邦中連綿且較寬的街道，按希臘語的特性因其寬闊而得名；因為希臘人稱寬闊為『platus』。quintana 是大街的第五部分，供載貨馬車（carpentum）通行。下水道（cloacae）如此稱呼，是因為水藉它們被濾出（percolantur）。據說塔克文·普里斯庫斯最先在羅馬建造這些，好使每逢雨水氾濫之時，水能藉它們排出城外，免得在極大而持續的風暴中，洪水的肆虐傾覆平原或城邦的根基。
And properly it is called the gate either of a city or of a camp, as was said above. A vicus, as was said before, is the dwellings themselves of a city; whence too neighbours (vicini) are named. Streets (viae) are the very narrow spaces which are between the vici. Broad streets (plateae) are the continuous and wider streets of cities, named according to the property of the Greek tongue from their breadth; for the Greeks call broad 'platus.' The quintana is a fifth part of a broad street, by which a wagon (carpentum) can proceed. Sewers (cloacae) are so called because through them the waters are strained off (percolantur). Tarquinius Priscus is said to have first made these at Rome, so that, as often as a flooding of rains occurred, the waters might be sent out beyond the city through them, lest, in very great and continual storms, the ravage of waters should overturn the plain or the foundations of the cities.
Imboli (arcades) are so called either because they are vaultings underneath, or because people walk beneath them. For they are the porticoes on either side of the broad streets. The forum (forus) is a place for the conducting of lawsuits, named from speaking (fando) [or from King Phoroneus, who first gave law to the Greeks]. These places are also called prorostra, for the reason that from the Punic War, when the ships of the Carthaginians were captured, their beaks (rostra) were taken off and fixed up in the Roman forum, that there might be this token of that victory. The senate-house (curia) is so called because there care (cura) concerning all matters is administered through the senate. The praetorium is so called because there the praetor sits to examine cases. A gymnasium is a general place of exercises. Yet at Athens there was a place where philosophy was taught and the pursuit of wisdom was practised;
for it is called gymnasion in Greek, which in Latin is called 'exercise' (exercitium), that is, meditation (meditatio). But baths too, and places of runners and athletes, are gymnasia, because there men exercise themselves in the pursuit of their own art. The Capitol at Rome was so called because it was the supreme head (caput) of the city of Rome and of its religion. Others say that when Tarquinius Priscus was opening the foundations of the Capitol at Rome, he found in the place of the foundation the head (caput) of a man marked with Etruscan letters, and therefore called it the Capitol. Citadels (arces) are the lofty and fortified parts of a city. For whatever things of cities are safest are called citadels (arces) from warding off (arcere) the enemy. Whence too come bow (arcus) and chest (arca). The Romans think the Circus is so called from the circuit (circuitus) of horses, because there the horses run around (circum) the turning-posts.