CHAPTER ONE. A particular reasoning concerning the world, and a natural disputation and clearer exposition of those things which were earlier shown to be agreed upon in the formation of man. This is the book, says the Scripture, of the generation of heaven and earth, when all the things that are seen were perfected, and each thing, distinguished, withdrew to its proper place; when this revolving body of heaven established all things, while the heavy bodies, those that incline downward, obtained the middle place of the whole creation—namely earth and water, mutually containing each other. But a certain bond and support of the things that were made is the divine and eternal power, inserted into the natures of existing things, which governs the universe by twin effects.
For in rest and in motion it has contrived not only generation from things that do not stand, but permanence for things that subsist, around the most weighty and unchangeable immobility of nature, as it were a certain stable and most firm axis, continually carrying around the most swift circulation of heaven after the manner of a wheel, and preserving the indissoluble substance through each by means of both. For the revolving matter, by its most rapid motion, wheeling around the solidity of the earth, draws it tight, and the stability of the earth, by its immovable firmness, is unceasingly extended through the circuit of the revolving things:
and an equal magnitude is fitted together according to each of those things whose operation differs, that is, both of that which is of stable nature and of that which is snatched along in unceasing rotation; for neither can the earth be transferred from its proper solidity, nor can heaven ever be slackened in the most swift revolution of its motion. And these things are proved to have been constructed first, according to the wisdom of the Creator, as it were a certain beginning of the whole fabric—as that magnificent Moses declares by this, that he commemorates the heaven and the earth to have been made by God in the beginning, and that out of the motion and the rest which are seen in this creation, according to the divine counsel, all things in generation were brought forth.
Since therefore heaven and earth are separated from one another by equal measures according to a contrary efficacy, that creature which is in the midst of the contraries, partaking in a certain part of the things that cohere with it, connects the divided extremities by its own mediation. So that the conjunctions of the contraries to one another are made manifest by this interposition. For the air imitates in some degree the substance of the ever-moving and most subtle fire, both by the lightness of its nature and by the readiness of its motion: yet it is not of such a kind that it should appear alien from the kinship of the most solid things, neither remaining ever immovable, nor continually flowing away and failing:
but by the property of each it is made, as it were, neighbour to certain effects of the contraries, at once mingling and dividing within itself the things that are by nature distinct; and according to this same reckoning it is fitted together with both contrarieties, being supported also by a twofold affection toward the liquid substance. For inasmuch as it is heavy and inclined downward, it is bound by much kinship to the earthly nature; but inasmuch as it is of fluid and flowing efficacy, it is in no way known to be devoid of a movable nature:
for by this very thing there comes to be a certain mixture and concourse of opposites, while heaviness passes over into motion, nor again is motion retarded by heaviness, but they come together to one another, things that are by nature divided at their extremities, while they are mutually coupled by a certain mediation—or rather, by a most careful design not even the very substance of the contraries exists without an intermixture of the other's property. Likewise, as I judge, all the things that are discerned in the world consent to one another in mutual fellowship, and all creation is known to conspire into one, while it is found in the properties of opposites. For since motion comes about not only according to local translation, but also according to a turning and changeable manner:
and likewise the stable nature in no way admits the motion which comes about through change: the wisdom of God, permuting the properties of each, made the immovable nature indeed convertible, but the movable nature inconvertible—dispensing these things thus by a certain providence, lest that which is singular or proper to the divine nature (that is, immobility and unchangeableness), being beheld in some creature, should cause one to esteem the creature to be God. For the soul will not be able to be seen to hold the opinion of Divinity concerning that which is movable or mutable. For this reason the earth indeed is stable, but mutable; whereas heaven, on the contrary, since it is not mutable, is at the same time not stable:
so that the divine power, by attaching mutability to the stable substance and mobility to the unchangeable, and coupling each to the other through the contrariety of both by their own properties, might remove from the opinion of Divinity that which is neither of these (as has been said) of the divine nature, namely that which is proved to be mutable and unstable. All things, therefore, have been fittingly adapted to their own end. For they are perfect, as Moses says: the heaven and the earth and those things that are midway between them, all of wondrous beauty, each thing suitably adorned: the heaven indeed glittering with the lights of the stars; the sea and the air wondrously exulting with living things, both those that swim and those that fly;
but the earth, exulting in a certain way with the manifold natures of herbs and the diversities of shrubs, which, quickened by the divine power that preserves all things, brought forth; and indeed it was filled with all kinds of species, producing fruits together with flowers, full and prepared for those things that are wont to arise in them: all the ridges too of the mountains and the summits, and whatever is convex and upturned, or level and outspread in the valleys, were crowned with the new species of herbs and the varied beauty of trees—at one moment, as it were, eminences rising out of the earth, but soon rejoicing in the comeliness that hastens to their perfection, all things quickened according to their own measure by the divine command.
The beasts of burden indeed, herd by herd according to their own kind, lingered as they ran about in the wood; and with the modulated songs of the birds all the woods resounded in harmony. The face of the sea also (as one may esteem) was then established in its deepest gatherings with the greatest placidity and tranquillity. Beside it, stations and harbours, made as it were certain bays by the divine will, joined the seas to the lands along the shores; and the most quiet motions of the waves were rippled like green meadows, ruffling the surface of their upper face with fitting subtlety by the slightest and harmless breezes; and the whole globe, according to its creation, stood prepared by land and sea. But meanwhile there was none who might make use of these things. CHAPTER TWO.
Why man was made last after the creation. For not yet was that great and precious thing, man, the lord of the world, present; nor indeed had it been fitting that the prince should exist before those things over which he would exercise his princely rule. But when all things had been prepared to be subjected to him, it was now consequent that the ruler should appear. Since therefore the Creator of the universe had made, as it were, a certain royal dwelling for the future king—and this was the earth, islands, seas, and above these the heaven curved in the manner of a vault—and had stored up the manifold riches of the kingdom;
and by riches I mean the whole creation—whatever is in herbs and plants and trees, whatever is in things spiritual and sensible and animate; to which riches it is fitting that even the metals too be numbered, which on account of the beauty of their colours have seemed precious to human eyes, such as gold and silver and those stones that men love—hiding away the abundance of all these, as in certain royal treasuries, within the bounds of the earth, He straightway introduced man into this world, that he might be a spectator of certain wonders, but of certain others might hold the dominion as ruler;
so that through the things he would use he might understand the Bestower, and through the things he contemplates as beautiful and magnificent he might be able to investigate the ineffable power of his Maker. For this reason man was introduced last into this world after the creation: not as the most vile, cast off in the extremest part, but as one whom it befitted to be straightway begotten as ruler. For just as a certain excellent host does not introduce the diner into the house before he has prepared the feast, but, setting in order all the furnishings and fittingly adorning the house—the couches too, and the table, and the rest—then invites the summoned guest to the delights now made ready:
after this manner the rich and abundant Creator and Nurturer of our substance, filling the dwelling of this world with all good things and arranging these great and varied feasts, thus introduced man, giving him as an excellent task to keep a commandment, so that he might rejoice not in the appetite of things that do not exist, but in the possession of things present. Therefore He also wove for him the causes of a twofold composition, mingling the spiritual with the earthly, so that through the kinship of both he might possess each property—enjoying God spiritually indeed, but receiving earthly goods by bodily use. CHAPTER THREE. That the human condition is more precious than every creature that is seen.
But it is worthy that this matter too should not pass by uncontemplated: that the construction of this so great world, and the universality of its parts by which it is contained in the elements, is brought to perfection by the divine power on the instant, subsisting together with the command; whereas the formation of man was preceded by the counsel of so great an Artificer, and by the description of the word it is signified beforehand what is to be—what manner of thing it ought to be, and the similitude of what first form it should bear, for what cause it should come to be, and what, when finished, it should effect, and over what things it should hold dominion. All these were first perceived in action, so that before his generation man might in a certain way obtain a more ancient dignity, possessing the principate of all things before he subsisted. For God said:
Let us make man to our image and likeness, and let him have dominion over the fishes of the sea, and over the beasts of the earth, and over the birds of heaven, and over the cattle of the whole earth. O what a marvel! the sun comes to be, and no counsel precedes it; the heaven also, to which nothing in the visible creatures is found similar, is perfected by a word alone, and so wondrous a work—neither whence it should be made nor in what manner—is intimated: so too each single one of the creatures, the ether, the stars, and the air which holds the middle place, the sea, the earth, the animals and all things that are born, are produced by a word only, that they may be;
but to the making of man alone the Creator of the universe approaches, as it were, with counsel, and prepares the matter that is necessary for his construction, and fits the likeness of him to the form of the primal and principal beauty, and intimates the intention, for the sake of what thing he should come to be, establishing for him a nature congruous to its effects, which is proved to be most apt for the purpose. CHAPTER FOUR. Why in all respects the very construction of man should signify a certain imperious power.
For just as in this life instruments are suitably fitted by craftsmen for whatever uses, so our nature is constructed by the most excellent Artificer as a certain thing congruous to the work of rule, which, whether according to the prerogative of the soul or according to the habit of the body, would be such as should appear more opportune for commanding. In short, the soul—that which is royal and most sublime, sundered far from private lowliness of its substance—is hence more clearly declared, in that it is subjected to no one's rule, having the freedom of choice, and dispensing itself by its own will and governance; for whose property is this, save the one who commands?
Over and above these things, the Lord of the whole creation, made to the image of his Creator, indicates nothing else than that straightway in him a royal nature was formed. For just as, according to human custom, those who fashion the image of princes not only imitate the impression of his form, but also depict the royal dignity by the purple robe, and the image itself is already by custom called emperor; so also the human substance—since it was being founded for the rule of others on account of the likeness of the King of the universe—is composed as a certain living image, partaking of the primal form both in name and in honour, not by a covering wrapped about with purple, nor by sceptre or diadem intimating the glory of its dignity:
For no royal form, properly speaking, is seen to reside in these things; but in place of a purple robe she is clothed with virtue, which is approved as more precious than all royal ornaments; and in place of a sceptre she is upheld by blessedness and immortality; and with the royal diadem of righteousness she is adorned as with a crown. So that through all these things it is shown that the beauty begotten unto royal dignity diligently expresses in itself the likeness of the primal Form. CHAPTER V. That man is shown to be the likeness of sovereignty. But the divine beauty, it is clear, is not adorned by any outward garb or appearance, nor by the brightness of any colour, but is set forth by an ineffable honour of felicity.
For just as painters transfer the forms of men onto panels by means of certain colours, mixing the proper and fitting pigments, so that the grace of the primal form passes over into a likeness by a most diligent transformation: so do I understand that the Fashioner of our substance, as it were by certain colours of the virtues, bestowed a wondrous beauty upon His own image, expressing in us His proper sovereignty. Now manifold and multiform are the colours of this image, by which the likeness of the true Form is depicted.
It is not white lead and rouge, nor any quality of these mixed one with another, nor the laying-on of some black that lines the eyelids and the eyes, and the contour fashioned hollow and sunken by some blending, or whatever like things the hand of the painter has composed by the skill of the craftsman; but in place of these there is present purity, impassibility, blessedness, the turning-away from all evil, and whatever else is of this kind, through which the divine likeness is imprinted in men. With such flowers did the wondrous Creator adorn His own image, that is, the nature of our condition.
But if you examine also the other things through which the divine glory shines forth, these too you will assuredly find preserved intact in the image after His likeness; for the supreme Godhead is mind and word. For in the beginning was the Word; and those who, according to Paul, make progress profess that they have the mind of Christ, who speaks in them. Do not, therefore, behold these things as far removed from human nature: for in you also there is both word and understanding, which imitate the Word and Mind divine. Likewise charity, and the fountain of charity; for this, says that great John, because charity is of God. This, as it were a person, Christ the Fashioner of our substance, bestowing it upon us, says:
By this shall all men know that you are my disciples, if you have love one toward another. But if this love be lacking in us, the whole appearance and figure of the image shall be dissolved. The Godhead also beholds and hearkens to all things and searches out all things. You too have, through your eyes and ears, the living efficacy of this matter, and you know that you possess an understanding that searches out the things that are. CHAPTER VI. An inquiry as to what relation the mind bears to nature, in which also the doctrine of the Eunomians is incidentally refuted. Let no one suspect me of saying that the divine power, after the likeness of human operation, embraces all things by diverse effects.
For it is not lawful to perceive in that divine simplicity a varied and manifold power of operation; nor indeed in us are there many efficacious powers of things and causes, although the things that pertain to life seem to come about by a manifold operation. For there is implanted in us a single power, namely of the mind, which running out through each of the senses lays hold of the things that are presented to it. This through the eyes beholds the things to be seen; this through the ears hears the things that are spoken; this in those things which are desirable rejoices, and from those which are judged unpleasant turns away. With the hands too it accomplishes whatever it wills, retaining things and again casting them off, and using the effects of these instruments as it judges expedient.
If then in man, for whom the diverse functions of the members have been fashioned by their Author, it is one and the same thing that operates through all the senses, using each fittingly as the occasion may demand, nor by the differences of operations does it change the force and power of its nature: how much more in God, although the effects of His powers be diverse, ought no one to suspect His essence to be manifold? For He that planted the ear, does He not hear? Or He that fashioned the eye, does He not consider? As the prophet testifies, by these examples insinuating operations of this kind as it were certain most familiar impressions of human nature: For let us make, says God, man unto our image and likeness.
But where now will the abominable heresy of the Eunomians stand for me? What will they say against this utterance? How by these words will they defend the novelty of their doctrine? Is it possible, they will say, that one image should reflect the likeness of dissimilar forms? For if, according to their opinion, the Son is unequal to the nature of the Father, how did God form one image of diverse natures? For He who said, Let us make man unto our image, insinuating to us the holy Trinity by the plural signification, would by no means have testified to His image in the singular, if the primal Forms had stood dissimilar to one another. For it is not possible that of those which least agree with one another, one single likeness should be shown;
but if the natures had been diverse, He would assuredly have formed diverse images of them, each suited to each. Or is it because there is indeed one image, but the form of the image is not one? Who is so bereft of understanding that he can fail to know that those things which are approved as like to one single thing preserve also, beyond all doubt, their own likeness to one another? And perhaps for this reason the divine word, foreseeing this malice in the constitution of human life, and cutting off the perversity of the Eunomians, says: Let us make man unto our image and likeness. CHAPTER VII. Why naked man is approved as wanting natural weapons and coverings.
But what does the very uprightness of his posture intend; and why are the effects of bodily strength not co-born with him for life, but rather man is brought into this life naked, unarmed even with natural coverings, helpless and most destitute of all necessary things, who, by what is seen, would appear to be worthy of compassion rather than of felicity? For he is not armed by the production of horns, nor fortified with the protection of claws or teeth, nor is any death-bearing venom infused into some sting—with which things most of the beasts and serpents are by nature equipped for their own defence;
nor is his body covered with hair, although it would have been fitting that he who was set forth for the sovereignty over others should be fenced about by natural provision with his own weapons, lest for his own guarding he should need the aids of others. But as it now is, the lion indeed, and the boar, and the tiger, and the leopard, or whatever is like to these, naturally possesses strength sufficient for its own safety; the bull has horns, the hare swiftness, the stag both leaping and a sure gaze, and other living creatures size, and to yet others a projecting member of the mouth, which the common folk call a trunk; to flying things too the office of wings, and to bees a sting; and to absolutely all it is established that some natural means of defence has been conferred for use.
But man alone above all is believed to be destitute, and is recognized as slower than those that excel in swiftness of running, slighter than those that stand out in bulk of body, and despised by those too that excel in natural weapons. And how, someone will say, did the lord of all obtain such a sovereignty? But to this I think it is in no way difficult to demonstrate that, through that very thing which is believed to be lacking to our nature, a sure occasion is given whereby he may attain the dominion of all things subject to him. For if man had been of such power that he could surpass the horse in swiftness, and his foot were not worn away but rested upon the prevailing firmness of hooves, and if he bore also horns or certain stings and avenging claws:
first indeed he would be like the beasts, and would appear difficult at the very encounter, such aids being naturally bestowed upon his body; and next he would scorn to exercise dominion over others whose helps he would in no way need. But as it now is, the use of our life is apportioned among the several things that are made over to us, so that we may see that a sovereignty over them is altogether necessary; for the slowness of our body and its difficulty in swift movement made us employ the foresight of horses; and moreover, providing through the yearly returns of wool those supplements that were lacking to nature, and through other resources also are supplied the things necessary to life that were wanting.
Beasts of burden have been made subject to us for carrying heavy loads; and because we cannot graze upon grass after the manner of animals, we have taken care to make oxen serve our use, that by their labour we may more easily procure our food. And because we needed biting and teeth for the restraining and avenging of such beasts, what was lacking to us the nature of dogs supplied, which also, with its inborn swiftness, has been assigned to our uses as a kind of living sword; and in place of horns or claws, iron stronger and more penetrating was invented by men. This does not always cleave to us by nature, as do those defences to the irrational beasts; but, affording protection in time of war, the sword thereafter remains idle.
Likewise the use of this same iron is taken up in place of the crocodile's scales. And there are times when the very hide of that beast affords protection in battle; otherwise (as has been said) iron is shaped by the craftsman after its likeness, which, serving necessity by arming a man in time of war, forsakes him in peace. The flying creatures too have been made serviceable to our uses, and their very swiftness has not escaped the ingenuity of reason; for some of them, when tamed, appear to cooperate, while others by their very presence become the means of capturing yet others that are applied to our advantages. But winged darts also a refined art has perfected for us, which, drawn taut by the bow, has rendered a flying course to human affairs.
And as for the fact that the soles of our feet are too easily worn down for the completing of a journey, this enjoins upon us the necessary aids of the things subject to us, from which footwear may be fittingly fashioned. CHAPTER VIII. Why man's posture is upright, and for what reason hands have been given, in which also a certain discussion concerning the differences of the souls of nature is introduced. But that man's posture is upright and lifts itself toward heaven and looks upward, it is most certain that these are principal gifts, attesting his royal power. Finally, that he alone has been so formed, while the bodies of all the rest are prone and inclined more downwardly, a manifest difference of his honour is shown:
since it is established that the one is subject to this power, while the other exists as of pre-eminent dignity. For in all the others the foremost members of the body are the feet, because what is sloping forward needed assuredly the support of firmness. But in the constitution of man these members have been made hands, because by the uprightness of his posture a single step seemed to be sufficient, which by a careful provision should establish the steadfastness of standing upon a pair of feet. The hands too have been fitted for other purposes, for the use of reason; and if anyone should say that the service of the hands is proper to the rational nature, he would by no means err.
For I look not only to that which is common and ready to our understanding, namely that we mark words in letters by the ministry of the hand—and indeed even this is no grace unequal to the rational dignity, that we are able also to speak by letters and in a certain manner to converse with the hands, reposing our utterance in the figures of the elements. But I, intending something quite other, affirm that the hands obey the command of reason by a certain zeal of cooperation. Yet before we examine this same matter, let us inquire more at large into the reason which we have rather passed over. For almost the order of the things made, and the cause for the sake of which they precede, has lain hidden from us.
Let the earth bring forth green things, then let the irrational animals follow after, and so, after the creation of these, in the third place let man be formed. For perhaps by these things we perceive not only those which are manifest, namely that for the sake of the beasts above all the Creator of the universe established the nature of herbs, and for the sake of men created the beasts. Whence too He brought forth before the flocks their pasturage, and before man those things which could afford the aids of human life. But to me it seems that the sequence of this discourse intimates some doctrine concerning hidden things. For thus Moses, by divine command, reserved as a mystery for philosophy the account of the state of the soul, concerning which indeed even external learning has imagined something for itself;
but it did not clearly discern the things that were to be seen. By these things, therefore, as I judge, reason itself teaches that this vital and animal power is declared in three differences. For the nature of herbs is adapted only to growth and to nourishment, affording fitting increase to those that are fed by it; it is also called the germinative, and the same substance is perceived in shrubs and trees. But there is in these very things that germinate a certain vital power, deprived of the animation of sense.